michigan ground temperature by depth

Geothermal gradient is the rate of temperature change with respect to increasing depth in Earth's interior. USGS Current Water Data for Michigan. Issued in furtherance of MSU Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. What is the cause of temporary smell and black color of underground water? In 2016, geothermal electricity cost between 7.8-22.5 per kWh. revision. Ground Temperature Sensors were placed in the ground each foot in depth from one foot to eleven feet. figures. [13] The top hundreds of meters reflect past climate change;[14] descending further, warmth increases steadily as interior heat sources begin to dominate. Glacial Deposits - Estimated Just select one of the Notebook links. Hydrothermal energy, typically supplied by underground water reservoirs, is a main source of thermal energy used in electricity generation. This has caused a growing interest in finding sources of energy that are renewable and have reduced greenhouse gas emissions. If you are in a desert climate, you may be able to do something similar on a smaller scale. Data are stored onsite and transmitted to USGS offices every 15 minutes Michigan, Estimated Transmissivity for the Bedrock Aquifers of Reference to commercial products or trade names does not imply endorsement by MSU Extension or bias against those not mentioned. Compared to 2022, GDD accumulation is slightly behind this year. Modifying this idea, create a large bottom insulated surface coated with a good IR emitter (Titanium dioxide white is one such.) Explore the NEW USGS National Water Dashboard interactive map to access real-time water data from over 13,500 stations nationwide. [29][30] Melt water from the polar ice caps flowing along ocean bottoms tends to maintain a constant geothermal gradient throughout Earth's surface. Regents of the University of Michigan, Produced by Office of the Vice President for Communications, Click here to download a printable version, Office of the Vice President for Communications. wells in the United States. This is referred to as the "mean earth temperature." Figure 2 shows the mean earth temperature contours across the United States. Selected daily parameters from the USCRN data are available as graphs and other file formats for easy access by users ranging from the general public to science experts. not be displayed during periods of ice effect. At what depth does the ground stop getting cooler/hotter(summer/winter) and it starts to warm up?Where is the MAT depth or geothermal crossover? In addition to seeding depth, soil temperature is also a factor in determining the rate and timing of emergence. No, and in fact several MSU Extension articles (When is the best time to plant corn in Michigan?, Earlier planting dates are key for higher soybean yields) and published research (Nafziger, 1994; Lindsey and Thomison, 2016; Abendroth et al., 2017; Long et al., 2017) point to dates between late-April and mid-May as the optimum timing for planting corn and soybean in southern and central Michigan for highest yields. U.S. DOE, EERE (2015) Water Efficient Energy Production for Geothermal Resources. When can producers expect soil temperatures to reach these levels in Michigan? Ground source heat pumps for heating and cooling use 75% less energy than traditional heating and cooling systems. Science, 234(4777), 689-696. There is an an additional effect if your rainfall isn't evenly distributed over the course of the year, as percolating rainfall will be initially warmed by warm soil temps in summer. Select USCRN station or Alaska Climate Reference Network data and select a station from the map or a dropdown box. Check out the MSU Agricultural Industries Program! Temperatures in the 2000s have been higher than in any other historical period. (additional background). Get timely updates on local drought conditions, outlooks, and impacts from NIDIS and its partners. (2004). excavations in the United States. For further information visit the NCRFC Soil Temperature Network web page. Page Contact Information: Michigan Water Data Maintainer Variations in surface temperature, whether daily, seasonal, or induced by climate changes and the Milankovitch cycle, penetrate below Earth's surface and produce an oscillation in the geothermal gradient with periods varying from a day to tens of thousands of years, and an amplitude which decreases with depth. A graph on that page shows how soil temps vary with depth depending on seasonal variation, and moisture levels. Timing of spring crop planting is dependent on a number of variables. In this part, we will look at the impacts of sub-optimal temperatures, particularly those that are cool. To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers. Quentin Tyler, Director, MSU Extension, East Lansing, MI 48824. Seed Vigor and the Uniformity of Emergence of Corn Seedlings. Stack Exchange network consists of 181 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. Individual growers will need to assess their own tolerance of risk when making early planting decisions. for 2004 - 2005, Trout Lakes and Streams and Edit: One source claims 1 degree F per 30 feet starting at around 100 feet. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2021) Geothermal Energy Basics.. Your question has an incorrect assumption built in. U.S. DOE, EERE (2020) Geothermal Power Plants Minimizing Solid Waste and Recovering Minerals. You can make the system above colder by pre-chilling the water with an evaporative cooler Edit: One source claims 1 degree F per 30 feet starting at around 100 feet. The crabgrass preemergence model uses GDD (base 32 degrees Fahrenheit) to indirectly measure soil temperatures in a turf situation (enter your zip code under the map and then click on Crabgrass PRE). Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, latent heat from core crystallization, and possibly heat from other sources. Generating electrical power from geothermal resources requires no fuel while providing true baseload energy at a reliability rate that constantly exceeds 90%. Summer annual grasses such as crabgrass require proper soil temperature and moisture to germinate and establish. Groundwater-dependent Resources from the Michigan NFI, Non-Agricultural Groundwater Use At what theoretical depth of sand would pressure turn the sand into rock? You dont have to apply the first day the model indicates optimum. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. It just makes common sense. Policies and Notices, U.S. Department of the Interior | and Bell, 1982a, 1982b), Log of Estimated equivalent Data can be downloaded in different formats including an image of the graph. GDDTracker starts counting GDDs on Feb. 15. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006) The Future of Geothermal Energy: Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States in the 21st Century. endstream endobj 2945 0 obj <>/Metadata 54 0 R/OCProperties<>/OCGs[2958 0 R]>>/Pages 2940 0 R/StructTreeRoot 58 0 R/Type/Catalog>> endobj 2946 0 obj <>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/Properties<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 0/Type/Page>> endobj 2947 0 obj <>stream Geothermal energy has two primary applications: heating/cooling and electricity generation. %PDF-1.6 % An average U.S. coal power plant emits roughly 35 times more carbon dioxide (CO. Binary cycle power plants and flash power plants consume around 0.24-4.21 gallons and 1.59-2.84 gallons of water per kWh, respectively (compared to 15 gallons of water per kWh used by thermoelectric plants in 2015). in Glacial Deposits Resulting from High-Capacity Well Pumpage, Bedrock Aquifers - Estimated Related: Does spring . endstream endobj 2949 0 obj <>stream Eric Anderson and Bruce MacKellar, Michigan State University Extension - A look at soil temperatures in Michigan in the last 10 years gives a glimpse into when soils typically reach optimum levels for seedling emergence. Geothermal HVAC Trend Data. The 4-H Name and Emblem have special protections from Congress, protected by code 18 USC 707. Embedded hyperlinks in a thesis or research paper. I don't really have any university studies to back up what I am saying. Title: USGS Groundwater Data for Michigan and made available online. The U.S., Indonesia, Philippines, Turkey, New Zealand, and Mexico had 75% of global installed geothermal power capacity in 2021. Wengenmayr, R., & Buhrke, T. Thanks for contributing an answer to Earth Science Stack Exchange! ", "Radioactive decay accounts for half of Earth's heat", The Frozen Time, from the Polish Geological Institute, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_gradient&oldid=1152166559, This page was last edited on 28 April 2023, at 16:24. hydraulic conductivity for each lithology. Lindsey, A.J. The roller coaster of late winter and early spring has begun in Michigan. [19], The geothermal gradient is steeper in the lithosphere than in the mantle because the mantle transports heat primarily by convection, leading to a geothermal gradient that is determined by the mantle adiabat, rather than by the conductive heat transfer processes that predominate in the lithosphere, which acts as a thermal boundary layer of the convecting mantle. "Geothermal" redirects here. National Academies Press. [citation needed], Heat flows constantly from its sources within Earth to the surface. Changing climate: geothermal evidence from permafrost in the Alaskan Arctic. Seed Vigor Testing Handbook. Depending on the location, these may be colder than current temperatures due to the colder weather close to the last ice age, or due to more recent climate change. Digest 180m 1976. Global data on heat-flow density are collected and compiled by the International Heat Flow Commission (IHFC) of the IASPEI/IUGG. Timing for planting corn and other field crops is based in part on when soil temperatures are optimal for seed germination and seedling emergence. In the winter, cool the ground down with outside air. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. It's not them. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8:2106. A drought early warning system (DEWS) utilizes new and existing networks of federal, tribal, state, local, and academic partners to make climate and drought science accessible and useful for decision makers and stakeholders. On a worldwide scale, the heat stored in Earth's interior provides an energy that is still seen as an exotic source. Figure 1. Journal of Production Agriculture, 7(1):59-62. Show custom graphs or tables for a series of recent data for National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Research in Construction. These links provide summaries of approved historical daily values for daily, horizontal hydraulic conductivity values for Glacial Deposits. [22] This is 0.087 watt/square metre on average (0.03 percent of solar power absorbed by Earth[23]), but is much more concentrated in areas where the lithosphere is thin, such as along mid-ocean ridges (where new oceanic lithosphere is created) and near mantle plumes. However, in areas where deep permafrost developed during the Pleistocene a low temperature anomaly can be observed that persists down to several hundred metres. This article was published by Michigan State University Extension. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2022) Monthly Energy Review April 2022. [d`uL~@Zadn, @$ According to Association of Official Seed Analysts, 2009, seed vigor is defined as those seed properties that determine the potential for rapid, uniform emergence and development of seedlings under a wide range of field conditions. The authors used both low-vigor and high-vigor seed in the testing. How are engines numbered on Starship and Super Heavy? [27], Heat from Earth's interior can be used as an energy source, known as geothermal energy. Select up to two variables to plot as a time series. Figure3 shows the impact of soil temperature on the time it took to achieve 10 percent of final emergence (T10). The GDD model attempts to predict the optimum application timing for when the 0-2 inch depth soil temperatures consistently reach 50-55 F. Applications made at this time provide adequate time for the preemergence herbicide to be applied and watered in before crabgrass germination occurs. 2944 0 obj <> endobj Issued in furtherance of MSU Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. U.S. Geological Survey How does the subsurface earth temperature vary around the world? Flash steam power plants pump hot water under high pressure into a surface tank at much lower pressure. MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer, committed to achieving excellence through a diverse workforce and inclusive culture that encourages all people to reach their full potential. The current forecast indicates most of southern and mid-Michigan accumulating enough GDDs to enter the optimum preemergence application timing by the end of this week. 0.23 0.22 vaww01. A couple of interesting features of these Figure 1 graphs can be seen. radio telemetry and are available for viewing within minutes of hTmo0+:AVJ0ie'MAjmLpt'qTnyny!P#/5G \6X4XKv\B(.dq>Y-;pI$gJf/xx+3Sp !wCR>+LK&dBro^7J':tb~z>=Z}Ew]iw(SSFIiQd;fd[>I+vhqI*50rhD >-$yw?L1yPYe6].V@Ixeb9MM[^JLc;;5V^ZrSD|aK zz@:1*PQ{M{k2Ql|?0fe_b4o]hg"FE{V D{gsu_`*1uaF6+S&#M& g* lithology reported in the Wellogic database based on the landsystem for Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. The temperature would stabilize to a steady temperature when you go down 15 ft or so. 2021. Page Contact Information: Michigan Water Data Maintainer PJ]'u,43w$QJi "9/P$_|48 b^. Michigan State University Extension programs and materials are open to all without regard to race, color, national origin, gender, gender identity, religion, age, height, weight, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, marital status, family status or veteran status. U.S. DOE, EERE, GTO (2021) Geothermal FAQs., DSIRE (2021) Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC).. In Figure 2A, seeds were grown in a greenhouse between 64 and 77 F while in Figure 2B the seeds were grown in a cool growth chamber at 50 F for 10 hours and 68 F for 22 hours (with 1 hour transition times). vertical hydraulic conductivity values for Glacial Deposits, Estimated Transmissivity for the transmission times may be more frequent during critical events. The U.S. Temperature logs obtained immediately after drilling are however affected due to drilling fluid circulation. 148 are provided in the technical report for this project that is available on the project web site (see link below). Michigan, Estimated Yield of the Bedrock Aquifers of Michigan, Groundwater Mapping Project Website: http://gwmap.rsgis.msu.edu/, IGW Website: http://www.egr.msu.edu/igw/. In areas of high geothermal energy density, current technology allows for the generation of electrical power because of the corresponding high temperatures. MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer, committed to achieving excellence through a diverse workforce and inclusive culture that encourages all people to reach their full potential. Temperature within Earth increases with depth. At greater depths, underground temperatures reflect a long-term average over past climate, so that temperatures at the depths of dozens to hundreds of meters contain information about the climate of the last hundreds to thousands of years. For more information, visit https://extension.msu.edu. Using a seed treatment that includes two or more active fungicide ingredientsfor example, mefenoxam against Pythium and fludioxonil or a strobilurin against Fusariumand an effective insecticide is advised, particularly for corn. [15][16] The heat content of Earth is 1031 joules. Note: This 0.85 0.3 caww01. In reality, only 4 GDDs were generated in the seven days following that date. The frost line depth may be modified as provided in section R403.1.4 of the code. A quick check of the April 2016 soil temperature data at a 2-inch depth from Michigan State University's Charlotte Enviro-weather station (Eaton County) and Leslie Enviro-weather station (Ingham County) shows the minimum soil temperatures during the past seven days has been above 45 degrees F and may rapidly approach 50 degrees, indicating . Check out the Michigan Manure Hauler Certification Program! resulting in incorrect discharge data. At the Hancock Turfgrass Research Center on Michigan State Universitys campus, we have yet to record a soil temperature of 50 F at a 2-inch depth. Where does the version of Hamapil that is different from the Gemara come from? At that rate, the seed would be susceptible to insect predation, soil-borne diseases, potential flooding, etc. more than 850,000 records of wells, springs, test holes, tunnels,drains, and Photo courtesy of National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL - 48126. Are there any canonical examples of the Prime Directive being broken that aren't shown on screen? for approximately 18 days prior to emergence. Remember, the practices that encourage a healthy, dense turf stand, such asmowing high,returning clippingsand adequate fertilization, are all part of an effective crabgrass prevention strategy. [5] (The exact value depends on the density profile in Earth.) North Central River Forecast Center (NCRFC) Soil Temperature Network - The NCRFC operates this network of 47 stations (12 in Michigan) that collect weekly readings of soil temperature at depths of 2, 4, 8, 20, 40 and 60 in at locations throughout the north central US. Michigan Creative, a unit of the from real-time sites are relayed to USGS offices via satellite and/or MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer. Notebook. The accuracy of three analytical and semiempirical frost depth prediction models (Stefan, modified Berggren, and Chisholm and Phang empirical) were tested with soil temperature data from the. Around 850 utilities in the U.S. offer consumers the option to purchase renewable energy, or green power.. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 27(3-4), 371-397. The effects of weather, sun, and season only reach a depth of approximately 10-20 metres. Measurements of Ground Temperature at Various Depths, conference paper 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Energy Technologies, Nottingham, UK. site, daily summary data are generated Banks, D. (2008) An Introduction to Thermogeology: Ground Source Heating and Cooling. (2012) Induced Seismicity Potential in Energy Technologies. Quentin Tyler, Director, MSU Extension, East Lansing, MI 48824. To obtain accurate bottom hole temperature estimates, it is necessary for the well to reach stable temperature. The same data accessed by the Current Conditions link above but including both active and discontinued sites water data for the nation. The major heat-producing nuclides in Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232. is based on Wellogic lithologies and the geometric mean estimated An official website of the United States government. CSS10-10. Part 2 andPart 3 of this series will look at MSUs Enviroweather system of weather stations and what historic spring soil temperatures have been in Michigan. Drawdown, Estimated Drawdown The ideal soil temperatures for planting most plants, especially vegetables, is between 65-75 degrees. Click without the sun? Geothermal plants that began construction before January 1, 2021 are eligible for the Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC) at 2.5 per kWh. Highly viscous or partially molten rock at temperatures between 650 and 1,200C (1,200 and 2,200F) are found at the margins of tectonic plates, increasing the geothermal gradient in the vicinity, but only the outer core is postulated to exist in a molten or fluid state, and the temperature at Earth's inner core/outer core boundary, around 3,500 kilometres (2,200mi) deep, is estimated to be 5650 600 Kelvin. HKk0{yz U.S. DOE, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) (2019) GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet. Maize Yield and Planting Date Relationship: A Synthesis-Analysis for US High-Yielding Contest-Winner and Field Research Data. Michigan Ground Snow Loads by Jurisdiction County Ground Snow Load Jurisdictions . Soil Temperature Maps by Depth Weather.gov > North Central River Forecast Center > Soil Temperature Maps by Depth River Observations and Forecasts Weather Observations and Forecasts Water Supply Climate and History Seasonal Interest Local Information Links to some additional sources of soil temperature/moisture data: Page Last Modified: 2023-05-02 03:12:12 EDT MathJax reference. Consequently, discharge data may Temperatures above this Kalogirou, Soteris & Florides, Georgios. Check out the Michigan Manure Hauler Certification Program! one or more stations. NOTE: During winter months, stage Approximately 40% of U.S. adults and over 18% of 12-19 year olds are obese (BMI > 30). Seed availability, equipment readiness, field dryness, ability to conduct timely weed management (tillage and/or herbicide burndown), and other factors all play into the decision of when to begin planting. In 2019, the U.S. generated the most geothermal electricity in the world: more than 18,300 GWh. The mantle is mostly made up of high density minerals with higher concentrations of elements that have relatively small atomic radii such as magnesium (Mg), titanium (Ti), and calcium (Ca). Haul manure? [26] The global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy consumption from all primary sources. Compared with cooler conditions, high-vigor seeds emerged approximately 200 hours (eight days) earlier under the warmer conditions while the low-vigor seeds emerged approximately 250 hours (10 days) earlier. Second, radioactive heat production is concentrated within the crust of Earth, and particularly within the upper part of the crust, as concentrations of uranium, thorium, and potassium are highest there: these three elements are the main producers of radioactive heat within Earth. Some geothermal facilities produce solid waste that must be disposed of in approved sites, though some by-products can be recovered and recycled. (c) The jurisdiction shall fill in this part of the table to indicate the need for protection . U.S. DOE, Argonne National Laboratory (2010) Life Cycle Analysis Results of Geothermal Systems in Comparison to Other Power Systems. The USGS annually monitors groundwater levels in thousands of permit. He also rips off an arm to use as a sword, User without create permission can create a custom object from Managed package using Custom Rest API, "Signpost" puzzle from Tatham's collection, Extracting arguments from a list of function calls, Passing negative parameters to a wolframscript. The further below optimum soil temperatures are at planting, the more likely an effective seed treatment will provide an economic return. Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers. Geothermal energy has two primary applications: heating/cooling and electricity generation. Egli, D.B. Example. 2016. [3] These are all equivalent. First, in all but one year (2012) in the past decade, soil temperatures have reached 50 F and then fallen below that threshold for three to 15 days (average of eight days) before rising again. Data can be downloaded in different formats including an image of the graph. hbbd``b`Z$7S .e: $^g001rYo Ec Available site descriptive information [1], In Earth's continental crust, the decay of natural radioactive nuclides makes a significant contribution to geothermal heat production. Hitzman, M., et al. Therefore, the sinking plate has a lower temperature than the surrounding mantle, resulting in a negative geothermal gradient.[35]. National Integrated Drought Information System, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) and National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). Wells and Aquifer Test Locations, Michigan Oil & Learn more about Stack Overflow the company, and our products. If, however, the forecast is for cold and wet conditions, the risk is higher and the likelihood of requiring a replant is higher. https://www.builditsolar.com/Projects/Cooling/EarthTemperatures.htm, New blog post from our CEO Prashanth: Community is the future of AI, Improving the copy in the close modal and post notices - 2023 edition. Michigan State Universitys Enviroweather system of weather stations provides a wealth of information on current and historical weather data as well as other useful crop-specific tools. This will be colder than surface temps in summer, but warmer in winter. 2017. Preliminary assessment results of the geothermal potential showed that the daily average temperature difference between the air and at depths of 1.5-3.6 m was mainly from 10 C to 25 C during. These stations use high-quality instruments to measure temperature, precipitation, wind speed, soil moisture, soil temperature, and more. The soil temperature commonly cited for adequate corn and soybean germination and emergence is 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and that temperature is used as the base for calculating modified growing degree days (GDD) for most field crops. USCRN Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture Observations: View current or past air temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, surface temperature, soil moisture soil temperature, and fractional and total available water capacity data. Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) require electricity providers to obtain a minimum fraction of energy from renewable resources. The main stages of geothermal power development are resource exploration, drilling, reservoir/plant development, and power generation. 2017. U.S. EPA (2019) Geothermal Heating and Cooling Technologies. 2) the initial gradient will be lower than the average until it reaches a point where it joins the stabilized heat-flow regime. The highest rates of germination and emergence and the quickest emergence were achieved when the soil temperature was 77 F. The opposite was true when soil temperature was 59 F. Though differences can be seen among hybrids, and different results may be found with hybrids grown under Michigan conditions (this study was conducted in Mato Grosso, Brazil), it appears soil temperatures higher than 50 F are required for the quickest and most uniform corn emergence. Values may include "Approved" and Thomison, P.R. et al. This occurs in the upper few hundreds of meters near the surface. The Groundwater database consists of more than 850,000 records of wells, springs, test holes, tunnels,drains, and excavations in the United States. FOIA USCRN Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture Observations: View current or past air temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, surface temperature, soil moisture soil temperature, and fractional and total available water capacity data. monthly, and annual (water year or calendar year) time periods. URL: https://waterdata.usgs.gov/mi/nwis/gw? Values may include "Approved" (quality-assured data that may be published) and/or more recent "Provisional" data 1994. HAO0s,v !Z%MPvqV (c8oj=U w5 u:TuWM bh~] "lq?3L~%a*y $ 5 4 [-\==3La.\fK.2vACiCo:-/`~nOe-W 29e7 @!~S65 UTm.nw*(D/A6AQbcn>Q#xQ n|Q&TE!')50@5ziT\@qQ~HnFaBlJTL'DF '8- A look at soil temperatures in Michigan in the last 10 years gives a glimpse into when soils typically reach optimum levels for seedling emergence. In areas of Holocene subsidence and deposition (Fig. The continental crust is abundant in lower density minerals but also contains significant concentrations of heavier lithophilic elements such as uranium. with data for any part of the period October 1, 2007, through the present. Lachenbruch, A. H., & Marshall, B. V. (1986). endstream endobj startxref NOTE: During winter months, stage and discharge may be significantly affected by backwater from ice, resulting in incorrect discharge data. Many companies purchase renewable energy as part of their environmental programs. Values may include "Approved" (quality-assured data that may be published) and/or more recent "Provisional" data In 2016, there were 3,812 MW of geothermal electricity plants in operation in the U.S.the most of any countryand development has been growing at a rate of 2% per year. One is the heat loop on one side of the house and the second could be the cool loop on the other side of the house. The longer the seed is in the ground, the more potential exists for something to go wrongheavy rains that cause flooding and anaerobic conditions, imbibitional chilling, seed predation by insect pests (seedcorn maggot, white grubs, wireworms) and infection by various soil-borne pathogens (Pythium species, some Fusarium species) .

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